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Mobini M. Samuel Clarke's Fitness Theory on Moral Value and a Brief Comparison of it with the Theory of Existential Fitness. jpt 2023; 3 (1) :15-32
URL: http://jpt.modares.ac.ir/article-34-65785-en.html
URL: http://jpt.modares.ac.ir/article-34-65785-en.html
Department for Philosophy of Ethics, Research Center for Islamic Philosophy and Theology, Islamic Sciences and Culture Academy
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Introduction
Samuel Clarke, a pivotal figure in 18th-century philosophy [Yenter, 2022], was among the first to extensively incorporate fitness into his ethical and ontological views. This article aims to elucidate, scrutinize, and compare Clarke's unique perspective on fitness with the theory of existential fitness, underscoring the profound impact of his ideas.
Rationalism and revelationism in Clark's thought
Clarke has been introduced as the most influential British philosopher of his time in metaphysics, theology, and ethics. He follows the rationalist doctrine in all three fields [Yenter & Vailati, 2021]. According to some authors, among the supporters of rationalism in ethics, no one like Clark has had a mathematical view of ethics [Humphreys, 1947: 191]. Of course, Clark's rationalism is mixed with revelationism.
Fitness in Clark's ontological positions
From an ontological point of view, Clarke believed in "the wonderful contrivance and fitness of all things in the world to their proper and respective ends" [Clarke, 1704: 53]. From all of his discussions, it can be concluded that what he means by fitness is that things are such that the whole is in the well-being. [Clarke, 1704: 21] Clark believes in "natural fitness, according to which the order and harmony of the universe consist in relations of fitness realized among nature’s elements" [Sheridan, 2007: 264].
Fitness in Clark's moral thought
Clark's moral fitness theory originates from his more general theory about the natural fitness of things, according to which every rational being has to behave in accordance with the requirements of the universe and the necessary relationships between things and considering their fitness and unfitness [Clarke, 1705: 156-157]. Clark emphasizes that the existence of fitness or unfitness is as clear as mathematical truths, and we are morally obliged to act according to them [Clarke, 1705: 157].
Intrinsic fitness and its motivating force
On the ontological side, Clark is opposite to Hobbes's contractualism. He considers issues such as goodness and badness, right and wrongness, and fitness and unfitness intrinsic and real, not dependent on the contract. On the epistemological side, he considers knowing these intrinsic things self-evident [Clarke, 1705: 160-163].
Summary of Clark's moral thoughts
a. Metaphysical claim: Morality is something real and independent of the will of humans and God.
b. Epistemological claim: Many moral truths are like mathematical truths that are discovered in a definite and self-evident way. Another part is obtained through reasoning from these self-evident truths. In some cases, revelation is needed to discover moral duties.
c. Motivational claim: moral facts greatly influence the direction of human will [Taleqani, 2011].
Ambiguities and flaws in Clark's fitness theory
Ambiguity in the metaphysical part of the theory
Clarke does not explain why some relationships between humans and each other or between humans and God are fit and others unfit [Yenter & Vailati, 2021]. Francis Hutcheson says Clarke did not provide a criterion for that fitness, creating the moral value [Hutcheson, 2002: 158-159]. Hutcheson proposes the idea of moral sense through which one can distinguish fit from unfit and understand their moral goodness and badness. The moral sense can be seen as a sub-species of Hutcheson's idea of internal sense [Hutcheson, 2004: 23].
Ambiguity in the motivational part of the theory
John Rawls believes that if Clark had made the motivational dimension of his theory clear enough, he would have been spared at least some of Hume's problems [Hume, 1960]. Of course, Rawls believes that Clarke's theory has the power to answer these problems and could say that we have an inherent desire to do the right thing [Rawls, 2000: 80-81]. It is believed that this type of Humean thinking can be combined with the intuitionist rationalist approach [Kelly, 2002: 317].
Ambiguity in the epistemological part of the theory
John Rawls also believes in ambiguity in the epistemological side of Clark's fitness theory [Rawls, 2000: 73-74]. Sheridan also says that Clark never precisely defines reason in his works [Sheridan, 2007: 267]. Hutcheson considers an important flaw in Clarke's theory; it lacks a specific epistemological plan to recognize fitness. He considers the idea of moral sense as a necessary explanation for Clark's theory [Hutcheson, 2002: 157].
The privilege of existential fitness theory in comparison to Clark's fitness theory
Unlike Clark's fitness theory, Existential fitness theory has expanded the metaphysical part, and its main claims can be summarized as follows:
1. Moral value always arises from within relationships, and one cannot have an idea of moral value without considering a relationship.
2. The relationship that is the source of moral value is fitness [Mobini, 2022: 22-25].
3. Fitness in judging moral good is not fitness regarding usefulness, pleasure, etc.; rather, it is fitness from the existential viewpoint.
4. The existential right is the criterion for distinguishing value-creating fitness from others. Such fitness has value in which the existential status of the things is preserved, and every existence is placed in its proper position according to the wise plan of God and attains its rights [Mobini, 2013: 8-9].
5. The theory of existential fitness believes in the independence of moral value and is opposed to reductionist theories.
6. The theory of existential fitness states that when acting, we should consider our relationship with all the things that are directly or indirectly affected by our actions and establish a right and appropriate relationship with all of them (Comprehensive and universal fit).
7. One of the concerns of religious people in proposing moral theories is to demonstrate the link between ethics and religion in a defensible way. By looking at ethics instrumentally, some have set closeness to God as the goal, and in this way, they have established a link between ethics and religion [Mesbah, 1994: 117-126]. However, the problem with such views is that they have destroyed the independence of moral values at the cost of maintaining the relationship between religion and ethics. The theory of existential fitness, however, both preserves the independence of moral value and guarantees the relationship of morality with God in a significant way. In this theory, existential fitness with God plays a central role in creating moral value, and this is one of the fundamental features of this theory's advantage over other theories. For a man to play a role in realizing universal existential fitness as the goal of morality, there is no other way than to consider his fit relationship with God in every action so that through God, his communication defects are compensated, and he participates in inclusive existential fitness. With this view, both the intrinsic value of existential fitness and the necessity of communication with God in performing any moral act are taken into account
8. The theory of existential fitness has a metaphysical explanation of moral knowledge. The nature of the human cognitive system is such that it sees beauty and value in fit relationships and ugliness and evil in unfit relationships. God has only equipped man with the power of reason, But He has no role in how to see it. What the intellect sees as beautiful and ugly is like the intellect and does not change [Mobini, 2020].
Conclusion
Samuel Clarke has often used the concept of fitness when expressing his ontological and ethical views. Clark considers the fitness relationship to be a real and necessary relationship like things, which the human mind grasps in many cases and, in other cases, obtains from these obvious facts with the help of reasoning. And, of course, he gives a role to revelation in knowing some cases. According to Clark, understanding the fitness of an action creates a motivation to perform it. The most important criticisms that have been taken of Clark's theory are related to the existence of ambiguities, defects, and inadequate parts of this theory. Compared to Clark's theory of fitness, existential fitness theory, which is a metaphysical theory, has clarified various aspects of the problem. The theory of existential fitness is a right-oriented theory that plays a necessary role in relationships for appearing moral value. According to this theory, moral value always arises from relationships with each other that are fit. The fitness of a relationship is to maintain the existential position of the parties and not to lose any rights. The ultimate goal of this theory is to achieve universal existential fitness so that all beings have fit relationships with each other. Each instance of this comprehensive fit has its intrinsic value and is considered part of the goal. The fit relationship between God and creatures plays a fundamental role in universal fitness, and the value of any other relationship depends on the fitness of the relationship with God.
Samuel Clarke, a pivotal figure in 18th-century philosophy [Yenter, 2022], was among the first to extensively incorporate fitness into his ethical and ontological views. This article aims to elucidate, scrutinize, and compare Clarke's unique perspective on fitness with the theory of existential fitness, underscoring the profound impact of his ideas.
Rationalism and revelationism in Clark's thought
Clarke has been introduced as the most influential British philosopher of his time in metaphysics, theology, and ethics. He follows the rationalist doctrine in all three fields [Yenter & Vailati, 2021]. According to some authors, among the supporters of rationalism in ethics, no one like Clark has had a mathematical view of ethics [Humphreys, 1947: 191]. Of course, Clark's rationalism is mixed with revelationism.
Fitness in Clark's ontological positions
From an ontological point of view, Clarke believed in "the wonderful contrivance and fitness of all things in the world to their proper and respective ends" [Clarke, 1704: 53]. From all of his discussions, it can be concluded that what he means by fitness is that things are such that the whole is in the well-being. [Clarke, 1704: 21] Clark believes in "natural fitness, according to which the order and harmony of the universe consist in relations of fitness realized among nature’s elements" [Sheridan, 2007: 264].
Fitness in Clark's moral thought
Clark's moral fitness theory originates from his more general theory about the natural fitness of things, according to which every rational being has to behave in accordance with the requirements of the universe and the necessary relationships between things and considering their fitness and unfitness [Clarke, 1705: 156-157]. Clark emphasizes that the existence of fitness or unfitness is as clear as mathematical truths, and we are morally obliged to act according to them [Clarke, 1705: 157].
Intrinsic fitness and its motivating force
On the ontological side, Clark is opposite to Hobbes's contractualism. He considers issues such as goodness and badness, right and wrongness, and fitness and unfitness intrinsic and real, not dependent on the contract. On the epistemological side, he considers knowing these intrinsic things self-evident [Clarke, 1705: 160-163].
Summary of Clark's moral thoughts
a. Metaphysical claim: Morality is something real and independent of the will of humans and God.
b. Epistemological claim: Many moral truths are like mathematical truths that are discovered in a definite and self-evident way. Another part is obtained through reasoning from these self-evident truths. In some cases, revelation is needed to discover moral duties.
c. Motivational claim: moral facts greatly influence the direction of human will [Taleqani, 2011].
Ambiguities and flaws in Clark's fitness theory
Ambiguity in the metaphysical part of the theory
Clarke does not explain why some relationships between humans and each other or between humans and God are fit and others unfit [Yenter & Vailati, 2021]. Francis Hutcheson says Clarke did not provide a criterion for that fitness, creating the moral value [Hutcheson, 2002: 158-159]. Hutcheson proposes the idea of moral sense through which one can distinguish fit from unfit and understand their moral goodness and badness. The moral sense can be seen as a sub-species of Hutcheson's idea of internal sense [Hutcheson, 2004: 23].
Ambiguity in the motivational part of the theory
John Rawls believes that if Clark had made the motivational dimension of his theory clear enough, he would have been spared at least some of Hume's problems [Hume, 1960]. Of course, Rawls believes that Clarke's theory has the power to answer these problems and could say that we have an inherent desire to do the right thing [Rawls, 2000: 80-81]. It is believed that this type of Humean thinking can be combined with the intuitionist rationalist approach [Kelly, 2002: 317].
Ambiguity in the epistemological part of the theory
John Rawls also believes in ambiguity in the epistemological side of Clark's fitness theory [Rawls, 2000: 73-74]. Sheridan also says that Clark never precisely defines reason in his works [Sheridan, 2007: 267]. Hutcheson considers an important flaw in Clarke's theory; it lacks a specific epistemological plan to recognize fitness. He considers the idea of moral sense as a necessary explanation for Clark's theory [Hutcheson, 2002: 157].
The privilege of existential fitness theory in comparison to Clark's fitness theory
Unlike Clark's fitness theory, Existential fitness theory has expanded the metaphysical part, and its main claims can be summarized as follows:
1. Moral value always arises from within relationships, and one cannot have an idea of moral value without considering a relationship.
2. The relationship that is the source of moral value is fitness [Mobini, 2022: 22-25].
3. Fitness in judging moral good is not fitness regarding usefulness, pleasure, etc.; rather, it is fitness from the existential viewpoint.
4. The existential right is the criterion for distinguishing value-creating fitness from others. Such fitness has value in which the existential status of the things is preserved, and every existence is placed in its proper position according to the wise plan of God and attains its rights [Mobini, 2013: 8-9].
5. The theory of existential fitness believes in the independence of moral value and is opposed to reductionist theories.
6. The theory of existential fitness states that when acting, we should consider our relationship with all the things that are directly or indirectly affected by our actions and establish a right and appropriate relationship with all of them (Comprehensive and universal fit).
7. One of the concerns of religious people in proposing moral theories is to demonstrate the link between ethics and religion in a defensible way. By looking at ethics instrumentally, some have set closeness to God as the goal, and in this way, they have established a link between ethics and religion [Mesbah, 1994: 117-126]. However, the problem with such views is that they have destroyed the independence of moral values at the cost of maintaining the relationship between religion and ethics. The theory of existential fitness, however, both preserves the independence of moral value and guarantees the relationship of morality with God in a significant way. In this theory, existential fitness with God plays a central role in creating moral value, and this is one of the fundamental features of this theory's advantage over other theories. For a man to play a role in realizing universal existential fitness as the goal of morality, there is no other way than to consider his fit relationship with God in every action so that through God, his communication defects are compensated, and he participates in inclusive existential fitness. With this view, both the intrinsic value of existential fitness and the necessity of communication with God in performing any moral act are taken into account
8. The theory of existential fitness has a metaphysical explanation of moral knowledge. The nature of the human cognitive system is such that it sees beauty and value in fit relationships and ugliness and evil in unfit relationships. God has only equipped man with the power of reason, But He has no role in how to see it. What the intellect sees as beautiful and ugly is like the intellect and does not change [Mobini, 2020].
Conclusion
Samuel Clarke has often used the concept of fitness when expressing his ontological and ethical views. Clark considers the fitness relationship to be a real and necessary relationship like things, which the human mind grasps in many cases and, in other cases, obtains from these obvious facts with the help of reasoning. And, of course, he gives a role to revelation in knowing some cases. According to Clark, understanding the fitness of an action creates a motivation to perform it. The most important criticisms that have been taken of Clark's theory are related to the existence of ambiguities, defects, and inadequate parts of this theory. Compared to Clark's theory of fitness, existential fitness theory, which is a metaphysical theory, has clarified various aspects of the problem. The theory of existential fitness is a right-oriented theory that plays a necessary role in relationships for appearing moral value. According to this theory, moral value always arises from relationships with each other that are fit. The fitness of a relationship is to maintain the existential position of the parties and not to lose any rights. The ultimate goal of this theory is to achieve universal existential fitness so that all beings have fit relationships with each other. Each instance of this comprehensive fit has its intrinsic value and is considered part of the goal. The fit relationship between God and creatures plays a fundamental role in universal fitness, and the value of any other relationship depends on the fitness of the relationship with God.
Article Type: Original Research |
Subject:
Philosophy of Ethics (Analytical)
Received: 2022/12/3 | Accepted: 2023/02/4 | Published: 2023/03/10
Received: 2022/12/3 | Accepted: 2023/02/4 | Published: 2023/03/10
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